When we mention African queens, one’s mind almost immediately thinks about the Egyptians, like the illustrious Cleopatra and the beautiful Nefertiti, or to the biblical queen of Sheba. History often overlooks the formidable Candaces of Meroe.
Their stories, preserved in only a handful of texts, remain shrouded in legends and mysteries : was their empire a matriarchal society ? Were they simply regent queens or queen mothers ? Were they fierceful military leaders who achieved an overwhelming victory against the Roman Empire and its mighty Emperor Augustus ?
«At the top of the royal hierarchy was the queen»
These queens ruled intermittently over the kingdom - or should we say queendom - of Kush, with Meroe as its capital. Their territory covered part modern Sudan and Ethiopia. While hints suggest female leaders as early as the third century BC, undeniable proofs confirm their reign from 25 BC to mid-century AD.
The word “candace” is widely believed to mean “queen mother”, but this translation is inaccurate and does not do justice to the queens. According to Claude Rilly, the etymology of this term is still an enigma. “We actually don’t know where it comes from for sure”, he explains.
What is clear, however, is that the Candaces were not only the progenitors of male kings or consorts. Unlike the Egyptian female rulers up North, the Meroe Candaces were seen as truly legitimate rulers, in their own right. In Egypt, the female pharaohs were regent queens who took over their co-ruler’s powers, usually their sons’, or in Cleopatra’s case, her brother’s. But the Kushites accepted female rule.
While the meroitic society was patriarchal, with men dominating the administrative and religious functions, the women still held an eminent position, due to its matrilinear structure. A person’s status and legacy and status depended on their mother’s rank. “At the top of the royal hierarchy was the queen”, explains the researcher.
It has been said that this matrilineality came from African tradition, according to which, women like gods, could create life. But for Claude Rilly, the true explanation is more practical: “The filiation between a mother and a child is undeniable, while paternity can be questioned”.
But this mode of inheritence was not only unique to the Kushite civilisation. “During the centuries of Christian Sudan (from the 6th to the 15th century), there were no reigning queens, yet the kings succeded one another through matrilineal descent.” On this aspect, he draws similarity to other civilisations. “We can compare it to the Victorian era in England - a very patriarchal society, yet ruled by a queen at the top of the hierarchy.”
An overwhelming victory against Rome ?
At the peak of its power, the realm of Kush resisted the Roman invasion, giving rise to many myths. One of the most famous queens of the Kushite empire is Amanirenas. This ruler led her kingdom during the war with Rome, between 25 and 21 BC and became the object of legends. Greek historian and geographer Strabo, who witnessed the conflict, made a terrible portrayal of her. He simply called her “Candace” and depicted her as a one-eyed “enormous” woman with a “masculine look” who fights fiercely during combat.
Few descriptions of the queens of Kush still exist, making Strabo’s vision particularly significant. Some sources suggest that Amanirenas lost her eye while fighting and that she personally led the Meroitic army during the war against Emperor Augustus’ soldiers, but the ambiguity remains.
Claude Rilly warns that the Greek historian’s writing should be analyzed with caution. “To the Romans, feminine power could only mean catastrophe, and they thought they were only two types of queens : the monster type, such as the Candace who lost an eye, and the enchantress type, like Cleopatra who managed to captivate two Roman generals in a row.”
As for the outcome of the war, it remains a mystery. Roman texts report the superiority of their army. Only two steles, discovered in 1910 and now kept in the British Museum, describe the conflict from the Meroitic point of view, but are hard to decipher. “Roman and Meroitic texts present different narratives on the war. But we can infer that it ended with a statu quo”, says the linguist.
A peace treaty was signed and curiously spares the Meroits. They did not have to pay tribute as it usually happened at that time, and some lands they had lost in the past were given back to them. After this conflict, the Roman empire never attempted to invade Kush again.
